Edward Lee Thorndike And His Behaviour Experiments

Edward Lee Thorndike And His Behaviour Experiments Prior to Edward Lee Thorndikes landmark experimental analysis of behaviour in 1898, the study of the psychology of learning lacked a clear, defined research methodology. Research findings were very much subjective, lacking the quantitative evidence that would give them scientific credence and avoiding impreciseness and ambiguities in their interpretation. People were asked to look inside their minds and describe what they were thinking. (Ormrod, 2008). This method was called introspection, which by its very nature, is devoid of objectiveness. Thus emerged Thorndikes groundbreaking puzzle box experiments with cats, dogs, and chicks, culminating in his doctoral dissertation on animal intelligence in 1898. Through his experiments, the study of learning took on a more objective approach, where the emphasis was on the observables rather than the non-observables. The basis of his experiments was that behaviour is an observable phenomenon and thus is measurable. It led to the birth of the behaviourist movement where research looked primarily at behaviour rather than cognition, given that mental processes (like insight or introspection) cannot be objectively measured with any level of reliability. 2. Thorndikes Experiments (Task (a) of Assignment) To circumvent the subjective nature of research then, Thorndike developed some experiments on the learning phenomenon whose results were beyond subjective interpretations. The idea behind them was to observe the behaviour of a hungry animal trapped in puzzle boxes in its attempt to escape. He conducted the experiments using three animals, viz. cats, dogs, and chicks. Food, functioning as the temptation factor (stimulus), was placed outside the box in full view of the animal. He started with a cat. For it to escape, the cat had to manipulate a device that would open the door in order to get at the food. There were altogether 15 of these boxes, each with different escape mechanisms, ranging from a wire loop, lever, and a treadle which had to be depressed for it to escape. The variety of mechanisms was (presumably) to observe any consistency in behavioural mode despite the variables presented by the escape devices. In its attempts to escape, Thorndike closely observed the cat initiating numerous, apparently random movements, seemingly driven by impulse rather than reasoning. Through the cats struggles, it would eventually trigger the release mechanism. This was achieved more by chance through trial and error rather than by any reasoned action of the cat. The cat was repeatedly put into the box. Thorndike observed that what was initially random and chaotic behaviour became relatively more orderly and efficient. In other words, he noticed gross changes in behaviour when the same set situation was repeated. In addition, he recorded the time it took for the cat to escape from its confinement. He then plotted a time-curve graph which enabled him to not only analyse the animals speed of learning, but also the rate of learning. Thorndike repeated the same puzzle box experiment with dogs and chicks, with minor practical adjustments to the procedure. Again, time-curves were plotted and compared to those exhibited by the cats. However, in some experiments, Thorndike varied the escape mode. Instead of the animal physically manipulating a release device, he would, for example, remove a chick from a box whenever it preened its feathers; or he would open the door when a cat licked or scratched itself. He observed that the chick started preening itself when it was re-placed into the box, indicating the animals instinctive desire to be let out of the box. Time curves were plotted and compared to the curves obtained by the escape device mode. There were also certain other variations in the way the experiments were conducted. One such variation was placing the same cat that was used in a particular box into another differently designed box. He then observed how the cat reacted to the changed environment. In another variation, Thorndike allowed the animal to observe another member of its species in its attempt to escape. He wanted to find out if animals could learn by imitation. 3. Summary of Main Findings (Task (a) of Assignment) 3.1 Overview The overarching finding of Thorndikes experiments was that there are responses (explicit behavioural changes) when there is a stimulus (food). In that sense, there is a stimulus-response (S-R) connection in how animals learn. How well the animals learnt is determined by the experience it gained from the same experiment conducted repeatedly. In effect, this perspective of learning (connectionism) emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of the S-R connections. In general, it could be said that the essence of intellectual development depends on how strong this S-R connection is. The main findings from Thorndikes experiments in animal intelligence would form the basis for his formulation of theories related to learning. They led to further research into the more complex intellectual abilities of humans, eventually leading to the development of modern era comparative psychology. 3.2 Findings from the Experiments The main findings from Thorndikes puzzle box experiments can be summarized below: 3.2.1 Gross changes in behaviour When presented with a stimulus (S), the animal displayed an overt response (R), i.e. food (the stimulus) elicited a reaction in a hungry animal. In other words, Thorndike noted explicitly observable behavioural changes when an S-R setting is presented to the animal. The gross changes described by Thorndike manifested itself by the animals impulsive actions in what he described as trial-and-error learning in order to escape from the box. 3.2.2 Learning is gradual Time curves were plotted in all of Thorndikes experiments involving cats, dogs and chicks. The curves were a measurement of the time required for the animal to escape over repeated number of trials ranging from 24 to 117. The graphs allowed Thorndike to not only obtain the escape times, but also the rate of learning, which was represented by the slope of the curves. The time curves presented by all the animals showed remarkably similar patterns of behaviour. Analyses of the curves proved that learning took place gradually, i.e. in incremental steps rather than huge jumps. This was seen in the gradual reduction of escape times over the total number of trials. In one of the experiments, for instance, escape times for a cat varied from a high of 160 seconds to a low of 6 seconds over 24 trials, indicating that it had been steadily more efficient in its attempts to escape. Thorndike alluded to this when he described its initially random, chaotic demeanour gradually becoming more orderly and deliberate. It also proved that in some innate way, the animal had learnt from past experience. 3.2.3 Effective behaviour diminishes ineffective behaviour By analysing the time curves, Thorndike concluded that effective behaviour, i.e. actions that could lead to a satisfactory end, persisted. Conversely, ineffective behaviour diminished. In effect, there was a stamping in of some behaviours and a stamping out of others (Ormrod, 2008). This phenomenon was demonstrated in the way the animals became more efficiently adept in their escape attempts as proven by the quicker escape times. For example, in the experiment with a chick, the initial escape attempt was arbitrary and disorderly. But after many repetitions, the chick learnt to escape quickly with little of the initial chaos. As Chance (1999) puts it: Eventually the bird performed the act required for escape as soon as it was placed in the enclosure. In short, ineffective behaviour petered out. It could also be said that generally, other than through experiential learning, positive learning generates further positive learning. 3.2.4 Generalization of behaviour Thorndike also found that an animal that had learnt to escape via a particular means, e.g. by clawing, tended to employ the same means when placed in a different box with a different escape device. It could be inferred that animals generalize when first put in circumstances different than what they are familiar with, with their immediate prior experience influencing how they subsequently behave. It is only after they have adapted to the new environment that they adopt a new learning approach. 3.2.5 Discriminatory behaviour Another aspect of learning that Thorndike noted from his experiments was that an animal is capable of being discriminatory. This was evident, in one of his experiments, when (i) he made a statement to feed it and indeed fed it, and (ii) he made a statement to feed it, but he did NOT feed it. There far fewer errors in situation (i) than there were in (ii). This illustrated yet another perspective about the learning process that Thorndike delved into. 3.2.6 Learning by observation Thorndike asserted that animals, at least other than primates, do not learn by imitation, even after observing the successful behaviour of other members of their species. He effectively concluded that imitation could be discounted as an aspect of an animals successful behaviour. 4. Theories propounded by Thorndike (Task (b) of the Assignment) Thorndikes experiments on animal intelligence resulted in the formation of a body of theories related to the learning process and laid the scientific foundation for educational psychology. These learning theories were bound together by the theory of connectionism. The principal credo of Thorndikes connectionism is that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R) (http://tip.psychology.org/thorn.html). Connectionism debunked the dominant view held by psychologists before Thorndike that animals learnt by the association of ideas, i.e. they could logically relate events and reason out solutions to a problem. Rather, through his experiments, Thorndike established that animals are equipped with action impulses. It was these impulses, responding to the stimulus (S), that activated the trial-and-error behaviour of the animals trapped in the puzzle boxes. Their eventual successful escape was the result of the gradual learning they experienced arising from actually performing the act. It derived from an innate understanding that the correct actions (affirmative response) produce the desired effect (getting to the food). In short, Thorndike believed that learning requires no ideas in the head of the animal; only the performance of the act itself was essential for a satisfactory consequence. The learning theories propounded by Thorndike, being subsets of connectionism, can be summarised as follows: 4.1 The Law of Effect Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort are weakened (Ormrod, 2008). This theory basically emphasizes the role of responsive actions and their consequences. In the act of responding, the impulse that produced the successful act would be stamped in (strengthened), whilst all other non-successful impulses would be stamped out (weakened). Eventually the stamping in would become habitual responses to that same situation. In the puzzle box experiments, the S-R connection was established because the response resulted in a satisfying consequence (escape from box). This response was strengthened, as seen when the animal reduced its vain actions (e.g. clawing and scurrying aimlessly) in the repeated experiments, as shown by the much faster escape times. Applied to human learning, this law implies that positive stimuli breed correspondingly positive responses. In practical terms, in schools or any learning institution, students should be provided with an environment that is conducive to learning. Libraries, for example, in general provide this conduciveness. As Ormrod (2008) puts it: Students should experience academic tasks in contexts that elicit pleasant emotions rather than in contexts that elicit anxiety, disappointment, or anger. This statement is consistent with the premise of Thorndikes Law of Effect that satisfactory consequences strengthen the response. 4.2 The Law of Readiness A series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked. (http://tip.psychology.org/thorn.html) This theory arose in an experiment where a chick had to execute a sequence of actions to trigger a series of release devices for it to escape confinement. This sequence of acts is today known as a response chain. Extending the aspect of satisfying some goal to humans, it could be surmised that optimal learning takes place only when someone is ready to act; in so doing, the consequences are satisfying. On the other hand, forcing someone to act when he is not ready will be annoying. Forcing can be interpreted as interfering in someones goal-directed behaviour. Interference that leads to unwilling behaviour causes frustration. An analogy could be made of a child who is force-fed to eat vegetables. He may grow up to hate eating vegetables if it is forced upon him. However, if he himself is ready to eat them, the act will more likely lead to satisfaction. In the long run, vegetables are a must in his meals; not having them may lead to annoyance. On a broader perspective, the level of readiness could be linked to a major factor in the efficacy of learning, viz. motivation. At its basic level, motivation is some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something. (Harmer, 2007). When a person is sufficiently motivated to learn, the aforesaid internal drive should ready him/her to learn. In the context of the classroom, a conducive learning environment (S) can also motivate (R) students (the S-R connection in the Law of Effect). Hence it can be said that the stimulus (S) breeds a response (R) (of readiness to learn); in turn the response (R) breeds another positive response (motivation). Here, there is a chain of positive responses in the learning process. 4.3 The Law of Exercise Stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition. (Wikipedia, 2009) There are two sub-laws arising from the theory:- a. The Law of Use: The S-R connections are strengthened as they are used. b. The Law of Disuse: The S-R connections are weakened as they are not used. In effect, this theory stresses the importance of repetition in the learning process. This was how the animals strengthened the S-R response progressively in Thorndikes experiments, resulting in the faster escape times evident in the time-curves. The exercise in the law refers to practice, as in the commonly-held adage Practice makes perfect. This is especially true, not only cognitively, but also in skills where psychomotor and kinaesthetic abilities are critical to the learning. For instance, the more successful golfers are more likely to be the ones who hone their skills through longer periods of repetitive drills, all other factors being equal. Motor mechanics achieve a higher level of competency through constant and repetitive work. The importance of repetitive practice in learning cannot be overemphasized. A student can achieve a greater mathematical proficiency through tireless repetitive practice. In language learning, repetition has always played a part to provoke the structuring and re-structuring of noticed language (Harmer, 2007). Hence teachers in language classrooms put their students through choral drilling for them to internalise not only grammatical structures, but also the sentence intonation. The three laws of learning above are interestingly linked to each other. Connections are strengthened because S-R pairings occur many times (Law of exercise) and then rewarded (Law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence of actions (Law of readiness). Re-stating the link in another way, it can be said that in learning, motivation (readiness) is driven by incentives (effect). Both motivation and incentives can drive the learner towards practice (exercise) until ultimate success is achieved. 5. Thorndikes perspective of animal learning (Task (c) of the Assignment) The MacMillan English Dictionary (2002) defines reasoning as: the process of thinking about something in an intelligent and sensible way in order to make a decision. The Concise Oxford English (2002) dictionary defines thinking as: using thought or rational judgement; intelligent. But are both these definitions applicable universally, i.e. applicable to humans and animals? In a general sense, it may appear so. After all a process of thinking, in whatever way, has to take place before an animal acts. But does an animal think by using rational judgement? On the premise that animals do not rationalise, it follows then that animals do not think, at least not in the way that we humans do. Barrow and Woods (2006) declared that rationality is inextricably tied up with the notion of thinking. So it begs the question: How do animals think? Given that thinking is needed for learning, how do animals learn? Thorndike, in his doctoral dissertation, asserted that animal learning has nothing to do with reasoning or the association of ideas. Rather, he declared that it (learning) occurs as a result of trial and accidental success. He concluded this based on his puzzle box experiments where success (of escape) was due to the animals trial-and-error actions rather than a reasoned, logical, i.e. thinking, approach to the problem. According to Thorndike, the outwardly random, chaotic behaviour of the animal was due to the activation of its innate action impulses responding to the stimulus. There was no evident association of ideas in the solution. In laymans terms, animals do not put two and two together (as humans do) in a rational, logical way when they act, i.e. there is no reasoning. If animals could reason, then learning should be abrupt, NOT gradual as proven in Thorndikes time curves. What Thorndike offered, on the other hand, was that instead of the association of ideas, animals learnt through the association of sensations. This perspective was diametrically opposed to the views subscribed by comparative psychologists before him. They had contended that animals had cognitive insight, they being able to establish ideas and employ reasoning in their actions. Thorndikes experiments effectively debunked that long held contention. He said that there was no solid evidence that animals grasped ideas or learned through reasoning (Chance, 1999). In summary, Thorndike put forth four arguments in support of his beliefs. These arguments were empirically backed by the main findings of his puzzle box experiments. Chance (1999) expressed them thus: (1) The behaviour of animals is impulsive and apparently random, not systematic and logical. As enunciated above (and in other sections), when presented with a stimulus, the response of a trapped animal is chaotic; it follows that there is no contemplation or thoughtfulness, therefore no insight. Impulse rather than thought drives its actions. (2) The change in an animals behaviour is gradual, not abrupt. This assertion was validated by the time curves. The curves established that animals learn in incremental steps, not in sudden surges. This implies that there is an absence of reasoning (Chance, 1999). (3) The animals show no sign of understanding between action and consequence even after they have learnt to escape from the box. This arose from an experiment when a cat, which had escaped by pulling a loop, would repeat the same action, even when the loop was absent in the repeated trials. It shows that the cats response had been strengthened due to earlier successes (The Law of effect). It again confirms Thorndikes view that animal learning does not involve reasoning. (4) Animals learnt only if they performed the necessary act themselves. As described in 3.2.6 Learning by observation, animals do not learn by observing and imitating models. Neither would they learn if they are prompted to perform the act, as Thorndike discovered when he repeatedly assisted the cat to pull the release device. When left on its own, the cat could not associate the loop as a means of escape. This indicates that, unless the animal acted on its own volition, learning would not take place (the Law of readiness). It stands that animals cannot reason their way through a problem. 6. Conclusion It has been over 100 years now since Thorndikes pioneering work in the study and psychology of learning, resulting in a learning perspective referred to as connectionism, emphasizing on behaviour as opposed to cognition. It laid the foundation for latter day psychologists to conduct a more objective, scientific research into the process of human and animal learning. Thorndikes puzzle box experiments primarily focussed on the S-R relationship that provided the catalytic impetus to learning. It led to the development of Thorndikes theories, which expounds how learning takes place. Through his experiments, Thorndike also disproved the views held by other psychologists that animals possess insight in their learning process. All in all, Thorndikes research provided a fresh perspective of the learning process which led to further research by others. In a way, this scenario is an instance of the S-R environment. (End)

A Place Where the Sea Remembers †Short Story Essay

In A Place Where the Sea Remembers, Sandra Benitez invites us into a mesmerizing world filled with love, anger, tragedy and hope. This rich and bewitching story is a bittersweet portrait of the people in Santiago, a Mexican village by the sea. Each character faces a conflict that affects the course of his or her life. The characters in this conflict are Remedios, la curandera of the small town who listens to people’s stories and gives them advice, Marta, a 16 year old teenage girl, who was raped and became pregnant. Chayo is Marta’s big sister and Calendario is Chayo’s husband. Justo Flores, his conflict is person vs. self. One of the most important conflicts in this story is person vs. person, then person vs. supernatural followed by person vs. self. Marta was raped at a young age, so she wants to have an abortion. As she talks about it, Calendario, her brother in-law promises her that he and Chayo would take care of her baby when he is born, for he has been promoted to the salad maker in town. But everything changes when Chayo and Calendario are blessed with a child that they thought they would never have. Since Chayo is about to have a baby of her own, she refuses to take care of Marta’s baby. Marta’s dream is to go to El Paso. She goes to see Calendario and she finds out that her own sister did not want to take care of her child because she is having one of her own. So that is when the conflict person vs. person begins between Marta and Chayo. When Chayo finds out about her sister’s betrayal they do not speak for years. There are hard feelings going on between them throughout the story. Marta has a second conflict, person vs. supernatural. Marta goes to see Remedios, la Curandera, to help her with her problem. Remedios knows what happened to Marta even before she speaks. She knows that she was raped on the beach against her will. When Marta tells her about her problem and asks if she could help her Remedios refuses. Marta, disappointed about her sister’s selfishness, goes to el brujo to put a spell on her sister’s son. Marta regrets doing that and goes to Remedios to undo the spell. Chayo still thinks the curse is there after four years. Marta takes care of her own child, and learns how to deal with the fact he came from a rape but in the end there is a twist of fate. Remedios has seen Marta’s future. She knows that her child is going to die; she sees this when the boy was in his mother’s womb. The conflict of person vs. person begins with Don Justo Flores. Each day he goes to the beach where people beach pay him to see his birds perform tricks. Don Justo is a lonely man but he has a story. He had two wives and five children, including Justina, his first, and Ernestina, his fifth. Suddenly he receives a telegraph; he suspects it is bad news but he cannot read. He hopes the telegraph is from Justina saying all is forgiven. So as he walks on the beach as usual, he finds a girl named Rita and asks her to pick her fortune. Don Justo asks the guy next to her to read him the telegraph. The guy tells him it is bad news after he reads, â€Å"Come home at once, papa Justina is gone from us.†(A Place Where the Sea Remembers, Sandra Benitez, p. 108) So he gathers his things and goes to town for tequila and he blames himself for not being a good father and not being there for Justina when she was a little girl. He remembers allowing his second wife to push Justina out of the hou se; he cannot stand the pain. Whether we like it or not, conflict is a part of everyday lives. It can happen to anyone, from your friends to your family. Often it is not the fact that conflict occurs, but how it is dealt with, how people react to it. After being touched by conflict, people can evolve and build strong relationships. However, conversely many people can also suffer and be influenced. Therefore, in some ways conflict can be commendable, and some ways it can be brutal. Often conflict is violent, negative and destructive. However, this is not always so. There are times where conflict can bring unexpected qualities from people change a person for the better. Humans are stubborn. In A Place where the Sea Remembers, Marta and Chayo are experiencing person vs. person conflict. If the sisters understood each other and accepted that each other’s perspective is different, but not wrong, there would not have been any conflict.

Were the American Colonists Justified in Waging War?

Tymyr Wilson 11/20/12 Mr. Jones U. S HIST. Were the American colonists justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain ? The colonists were in every right, aspect and mind not only justified but also it was about time that they stood of and actually take action against the British. The choice of going to war with them, was the only choice that they had.All diplimatical options that they had ceased to stand a chance against the tyrant Britain. From the very beginning when the colonists felt upset against their mother country and the way that they went about the law making, up until the beginning of the war, they tried all diplimatical options that they had by sending letters. When they didn’t work then they had no other means but to declare war. It was said and is very true, that the British gave a lot to the colonists and we see such helpings as in the French and Indian war.The British gave up a lot of troops and money and numerous others in fighting that war that the l east that the colonist could do is to pay the taxes. Well they do have a good right to say that since they were the contributing factor in the colonists being safe from the French and Indians. The people in the end should go about daily lives and pay the normal taxes but you do have to draw the line somewhere. The American colonists were justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain because of unjust laws, a King of tyranny, and both violating searches and officials.These things outraged the colonists in different ways. Forcing them to unite together and rebel against Britain, hence leading to Revolutionary War. First off, Parliament imposed many unjust laws they believed that Britain had the right to impose laws to regulate trade. However contrast the introduction of The Stamp Act was purely to gain revenue. The Stamp Act particularly affected lawyers merchants, and editors, as well as the general public parliament can make laws to bind us in all cases. The colonists wishe d to have a leader of respect who could look out for prosperity.The colonists argued that they were unfairly taxed without representation. In contrary there are many different views, concerning the causes of the Revolutionary War. The colonists felt that their privacy was offended and they were being treated inhumane fashion. Intolerable King oppressed the colonists. over the duration of time, there were many occurrences of injuries unlawful seizures. For example once the Sons Of Liberty used mob violence. Stamp agents resigned The Stamp Act was repealed. Parliament asserted with The Delatory Act. They felt it could pass numerous laws to keep control.

Geography and History of the Island Nation of Samoa

Samoa, officially called the Independent State of Samoa, is an island nation located in Oceania. It is about 2,200 miles (3,540 km) south of Hawaii and its area consists of two main islands, Upolu and Savai. In 2011, Samoa  moved  the International Date Line because it claimed it has more economic ties with Australia and New Zealand (both of which are on the other side of the dateline) than with the United States. On Dec. 29, 2011, at midnight, the date in Samoa changed from Dec. 29 to Dec. 31. Fast Facts: Samoa Official Name: Independent State of SamoaCapital: ApiaPopulation: 201,316  (2018)Official Language: Samoan (Polynesian)Currency: Tala (SAT)Form of Government: Parliamentary republicClimate: Tropical; rainy season (November to April), dry season (May to October)Total Area: 1,093 square miles (2,831 square kilometers)Highest Point: Mount Silisili at 6,092 feet (1,857 meters)Lowest Point: Pacific Ocean at 0 feet (0 meters) History of Samoa Archeological evidence shows that Samoa has been inhabited for over 2,000 years by migrants from Southeast Asia. Europeans did not arrive in the area until the 1700s and by the 1830s, missionaries and traders from England began arriving in large numbers. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Samoan islands were politically divided and in 1904 the easternmost islands became the U.S. territory known as American Samoa. At the same time, the western islands became Western Samoa and they were controlled by Germany until 1914 when that control passed to New Zealand. New Zealand then administered Western Samoa until it gained its independence in 1962. According to the U.S. Department of State, it was the first country in the region to gain independence. In 1997, Western Samoas name changed to the Independent State of Samoa. Today, however, the nation is known as Samoa throughout most of the world. Government of Samoa Samoa is considered a parliamentary democracy with an executive branch of government made up of a chief of state and a head of government. The country also has a unicameral Legislative Assembly with 47 members who are elected by voters. Samoas judicial branch consists of a Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, the District Court, and the Land and Titles Court. Samoa is divided into 11 different districts for local administration. Economics and Land Use in Samoa Samoa has a relatively small economy that is dependent on foreign aid and its trade relations with foreign nations. According to the CIA World Factbook, agriculture employs two-thirds of the labor force. The main agricultural products of Samoa are coconuts, bananas, taro, yams, coffee, and cocoa. Industries in Samoa include food processing, building materials, and auto parts. Geography and Climate of Samoa Geographically, Samoa is a group of islands located in the South Pacific Ocean or Oceania between Hawaii and New Zealand and below the equator in the Southern Hemisphere. Its total land area is 1,093 square miles (2,831 sq km) and it consists of two main islands as well as several small islands and uninhabited islets. The main islands of Samoa are Upolu and Savai and the highest point in the country, Mount Silisili at 6,092 feet (1,857 m), is located on Savai while its capital and largest city, Apia, is located on Upolu. The topography of Samoa consists mainly of coastal plains but the interior of Savai and Upolu have rugged volcanic mountains. The climate of Samoa is tropical and as such it has mild to warm temperatures year-round. Samoa also has a rainy season from November to April and a dry season from May to October. Apia has a January average high temperature of 86 degrees (30ËšC) and a July average low temperature of 73.4 degrees (23ËšC). Sources Central Intelligence Agency. CIA - The World Factbook - Samoa.Infoplease.com. Samoa: History, Geography, Government, and Culture- Infoplease.com.United States Department of State. Samoa.